PROFESSIONAL TESTIMONIALS

Some unsolicited praise from clients, colleagues, etc. ...

Bruce is a unique handgun instructor who leaves all the BS at the door and focuses on making sure his students are fully prepared for the gamut of issues presented by a carry permit. He will also improve your shooting drastically over the course of the instruction. I found the educational experience with Bruce to be enormously rewarding, and I believe I live far more safely today than I did 2 years ago. -Real Estate Developer/CEO, 2015

Thank you so much for the referral for Bruce Edenson. He was outstanding! So well in fact that the opposing side attempted to strike his testimony and could not wait to get him off the stand. He was a true professional and had full command of the subject matter. -Defense Attorney, Fraternal Order of Police, 2018

I really learned a lot and enjoyed your training sessions … I can’t believe how much my shooting improved in just two range sessions … I am so glad I took your individual class and did not settle for a large class setting … There is no way I would have learned as much and improved my shooting performance. -Criminal Defense Attorney, 2013

Bruce is one of the coolest guys I have ever met. Seriously I love his intensity. He gives great instruction … doesn’t make you feel nervous at a range … This guy was awesome. -Chicago Police Officer, 2021

I spent the next hour and a half telling ... about your knowledge, expertise and common sense! I appreciate so much your help and advice. -former Cook County prosecutor and Illinois Assistant Attorney General, 2017

"I'm thankful to have found you. Clearly, you are a subject matter expert on all things pertaining to firearm ownership and concealed carry in Illinois ... a wealth of knowledge, and incredibly responsive. You have brought clarity to what has been a very murky, confusing myriad of gun laws to navigate ... You leave no stone unturned." -former Police Crime Scene Investigator, 2020

Bruce … Having encountered a great deal of "instructors" out there who …could at best tie your laces … Your services … seem like the variety that ought to be a standard prerequisite for all those seeking the license. Best of luck and keep up the good work. -NRA Firearms Instructor, 2018

Great stuff, Bruce! Thanks again for your sound advice. -Circuit Court Judge of Cook County, 2021

Once again you did a phenomenal job today Bruce. -Defense Attorney, Fraternal Order of Police, 2018

Thank you Bruce, your encyclopedic knowledge of all things handgun never ceases to amaze. I have the highest regard for your skill, knowledge and training. -Corporate Bankruptcy Attorney, 2014

Thank you very much for your training yesterday. You are a wealth of knowledge and the time was definitely useful. -Firearms Dealer/FFL, 2019

Bruce, your treatise on justifiable use of deadly force is spot-on. -Illinois Professor of Criminal Justice, 2016

Impressive. -Illinois Appellate Court Justice, 2017

… will follow your instructions to the tee. Again, thank you for all your help and quick response time. -Criminal Defense Attorney, 2015

I have delved more deeply into the rest of the binder materials and find them (and by extension you) quite amazing. -Business Executive, 2015

Thanks for the excellent work on the Xxxxxxxxx matter! -Civil Rights Attorney, 2018

Bruce, thank you for your prompt and informative response. Xxxxx has spoken very highly of you and I can see why. -former Assistant Attorney General, State of Michigan, 2015

I had a great shoot the other night. Largely due to your training and expertise … something for which I will always be grateful. -Consumer Rights Litigator, 2017

This is a very well written defense of the 2nd amendment right … Thanks for sharing this paper. -Cook County Circuit Court Judge, 2018

Thanks again for everything. Greatly appreciated. -Chicago TV Anchorperson, 2015

Thank you and I trust you completely. -Criminal Defense Appellate Attorney, 2015

Excellent analysis. -Certified Public Accountant, 2017 (re valuation of gun range/store)

Thank you very much Bruce. I really appreciate your thorough approach to gun handling and safety training, including the substantially more classroom and range time than mandated by the state. -Corporate Attorney, 2019

Thanks again for all your help and wisdom. -Film Producer, 2016

Once again thank you for sharing all your years of valuable knowledge with me, I am truly grateful and honored. You're a good man. -Retiree, 2018

I took your class to learn and understand the respect that is needed to have and own a gun … Thank you for expertise and … Keep doing what you do best; make people understand the good bad and ugly of legally owning a handgun. -Doctor, 2018

A+ Absolutely the best I have dealt with... -Gunbroker Seller Review, Dec. 2022

A+ I have been a buyer/seller on GB since 2004, and I can say with certainty that bpetrigger is one of the most professional sellers I have ever come across. Buy from this guy with absolute confidence! -Gunbroker Seller Review, July 2022

 
A+ Probably the best seller I have encountered. Great communication, helpful and honest. Thanks for a great gun and a great experience. -Gunbroker Seller Review, June 2022

 
A+ Awesome gun, super fast shipping, fantastic communication. Couldn't ask for a better seller!!!! -Gunbroker Seller Review, June 2022

A+ Top Notch from beginning to end. -Gunbroker Seller Review, June 2022

A+ Excellent Seller. Fast Delivery of firearm, excellent communication. Firearm was as described, and everything was in order. Buy with Confidence. -Gunbroker Seller Review, April 2014

ILLINOIS CONCEALED CARRY FIREARM INSTRUCTION - ADVANCED & PRIVATE

"It’s better to have a gun and not need it, than to need a gun and not have it."

Course Overview

Firearm Concealed Carry is a very serious undertaking, involving the highest obligations and consequences. It requires fundamental changes in mindset and lifestyle. Life (especially yours!) could be jeopardized -- physically, criminally, financially, emotionally, professionally, and socially. 

Given the extreme magnitude and complexity of Concealed Carry, my unique curriculum is extraordinarily informative, comprehensive and rigorous. It far exceeds all Illinois statutory and State Police instruction/qualification requirements. This course is a virtual Ph.D. degree in both concealed carry and handgun ownership. You should settle for nothing less, since your life might well depend upon the caliber of the instructor and curriculum. Considering the profound criminal and financial vulnerabilities associated with firearm carrying, my program encompasses ... 

• The utmost safety with pistols.
• Advanced marksmanship and pistol handling abilities. You'll become "one with your gun." I train clients for functional effectiveness (accuracy + speed), typically 3” diameter groupings at center mass (bulls-eye) from about 21 feet. I’ll develop your marksmanship to equal or surpass professional law enforcement proficiency standards in order to 1) better assure defensive shooting prowess, and 2) help shield you from potential civil liability stemming from a justifiable use of force incident.
• Clear and complete discussion of laws, legal rights, responsibilities, risks, and ramifications. Whereas the Illinois Concealed Carry Act requires explanation of only certain state and federal laws/regulations, I extensively cover all relevant firearms and related criminal laws, regulations, and ordinances (federal, state, county and municipal). It's important to understand that many of these statutes/ordinances are nuanced and obscure, but violation of even a minor one can lead to your incarceration, monetary fine and/or forfeiture of gun rights. The curriculum has been vetted by expert criminal defense attorneys, former county and federal prosecutors, a Cook County judge, an Illinois Professor of Criminal Justice, and civil litigators. My guidance is often sought by legal and law enforcement professionals.  
• Practical competencies including: advanced shooting drills; enhanced tactical skills; use of deadly force; ballistics and ammunition; holster protocols; concealment techniques; pistol readiness modes; handgun malfunctions; legal defense strategy; out-of-state recognition and reciprocity; other personal safety measures 
• Superb handgun operation, cleaning and maintenance.
• "Concierge" service ... complete outfitting and sourcing help including pistol and holster selection, ammunition, supplies and accessories.

Course Qualification

Enrollment is limited to very serious and well-qualified persons; instruction is one-to-one to assure clients' optimal comprehension and proficiency. This course has absolute integrity … no dumbing-down, no shortcuts.

Location, Scheduling, Etc.

Service area includes Chicago and suburbs, northwest Indiana and southwest Michigan.  Scheduling can usually be arranged per client convenience. Contact me to discuss particulars.

Professional Background

• Illinois State Police Approved Concealed Carry Firearms Instructor (among the first) since September, 2013
• NRA Certified Pistol and CCW Instructor
• Firearms Expert Witness - Fraternal Order of Police
• Murder trial witness experience
• 1000+ hours as a RSO and range consultant
• Illinois Licensed Private Security Officer
• Have owned and effectively serviced 40+ firearms over 45+ years 

I’m highly professional, dedicated, and a straight shooter. No phony SWAT persona, no hyperbole, no dogma. I staunchly support 2nd Amendment rights; I even more vigorously espouse the inherent duties (safety, lawfulness, morality, gravitas) accompanying our gun rights.

Afterword

Think of Concealed Carry as the ultimate life insurance; my curriculum provides the ultimate preparation and protection. The accompanying articles exemplify the course's character and caliber. 

Contact email: bpetrigger@att.net

Originally published March 13, 2015. Issue update 1/1/22.

©2015-2024 Bruce Edenson. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 

ARMED AND DANGEROUS?

This post is especially intended for novice and/or infrequent shooters, and particularly those who recently bought guns for protection in the wake of burgeoning violent crime, Covid, political/governmental instability, etc.

The “Dunning–Kruger Effect” is a bias in which people mistakenly over-assess their cognitive ability. It's related to “illusory superiority,” in which people overestimate their own qualities and abilities in relation to those of other people. Lacking sufficient self-awareness or gravitas, people fail to accurately evaluate their relative knowledge or expertise. Therefore, they assume they’re competent although they’re really not. In essence, they don’t know that they don’t know! The bias can become especially dangerous in connection with firearms ownership, carry and use of force. Simply because someone has a license to possess or carry a handgun, doesn’t necessarily mean that he/she is functionally capable. Think carefully about this and the following realities …

Be self-examining … your abilities and judgement aren’t bulletproof.

A gun is not bling or a panacea.

Extreme safety and efficient gun handling are basic prerequisites.  

Shooting at static paper targets is not akin to real life self-defense shooting.

Your marksmanship proficiency should be at least on par with local law enforcement qualification standards. If below that, you’re probably below functional adequacy. 

"Micro-pistols" have inherent limitations and hazards. While they may offer good concealability, you’re likely to have “micro” effectiveness with one in a real life, dynamic, self-defense incident.

Don’t assume you actually know what you’re doing after having taken a 2-hour gun intro course or watched a few YouTube videos narrated by some “tacticool” dude posing as a Navy SEAL or Jason Bourne.

Your Walmart-like or large group “Concealed Carry for Dummies” course didn’t realistically or functionally prepare you for the true perils of gun use. You have no idea what you’re doing! And what’s worse, you probably don’t realize it or are in denial. And because you’re now handling and carrying a deadly weapon, you’re especially dangerous.

Even though you might have rudimentary or even significant marksmanship and gun handling skills, that doesn’t mean you’re “good enough.” Unless you fully understand all relevant criminal and firearms-related laws, especially those relating to justifiable use of deadly force, you could easily wind up in jail. That would be awfully bad in normal times, but in today’s COVID-19 environment it could be a veritable death sentence.

Even if you’re solid in terms of safety, handling, marksmanship, and legal knowledge, you’re almost certainly lacking adequate strategic and tactical prowess.

You better get very serious, professional instruction and training. Incidentally, unless proof of significant proficiency can be clearly shown, it’s likely that a prosecutor or plaintiff’s attorney will shred you in a potential criminal or civil proceeding.  

Have I wounded your fragile ego? Too friggin’ bad. Or think this article doesn’t apply to you? 90% probability it does. 

You’re armed, and dangerous! Let … That … Sink … In.

©2019-2024 Bruce Edenson. All rights reserved. Issue update 1/1/22.

JUSTIFIABLE USE OF DEADLY FORCE - LEGAL AND PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The right to defend oneself and others is a fundamental United States legal principle, derived from English Common Law. In fact, the precept dates back to The Roman Empire. Under Illinois law its basis is statute 720 ILCS 5/7-1, Use of force in defense of person. It states that a person “is justified in the use of force which is intended or likely to cause death or great bodily harm only if he reasonably believes that such force is necessary to prevent imminent death or great bodily harm to himself or another, or the commission of a forcible felony.” It's very important to understand and remember that the statute specifically uses the the qualifier "necessary to prevent" the offense!

Important Definitions
Since they’re intrinsic to the self-defense defense, these terms deserve clarification …

Aggressor: A person who: (a) Is attempting to commit, committing, or escaping after the commission of, a forcible felony; or (b) Initially provokes the use of force against himself, with the intent to use such force as an excuse to inflict bodily harm upon the assailant; or (c) Otherwise initially provokes the use of force against himself. (720 ILCS 5/7-4)

The party who first offers violence or offense. He who begins a quarrel or dispute, either by threatening or striking another. – Black’s Law Dictionary, 2nd Ed.; acts in such a way as to provoke a reasonable person to use physical force for protection, unless the defendant in turn uses excessive force to repel the plaintiff. The aggressor doctrine is generally applied in cases where an injury results from an assault which is an intentional act. - definitions.uslegal.com 

Reasonable belief: is defined under Illinois statute 720 ILCS 5/2-19 as “the person concerned, acting as a reasonable man, believes that the described facts exist.” Unfortunately, that’s very nebulous in conceptual as well as practical terms.

Necessity: The legal doctrine of necessity is recognized under state laws across this nation. Illinois statute 720 ILCS 5/7-13 defines it as: “Conduct which would otherwise be an offense is justifiable by reason of necessity if the accused was without blame in occasioning or developing the situation and reasonably believed such conduct was necessary to avoid a public or private injury greater than the injury which might reasonably result from his own conduct.”

Imminent: "certain, immediate and impending” (West's Encyclopedia of American Law)

Subjective: "related to or based on beliefs, attitudes and opinions instead of verifiable evidence" (Black's Law Dictionary)

Objective: "Neutral: An unbiased attitude or opinion that is based on factual evidence" (Black's Law Dictionary)

Legal Elements of Self Defense
According to prevailing Illinois case law, People v. Jeffries 646 N.E.2d 587 (Illinois Supreme Court 1995), in order to instruct the jury on self defense, the defendant must establish some evidence of each of the following elements:

1. the force is threatened against a person
2. the person threatened is not the aggressor
3. the danger of harm was imminent
4. the threatened force was unlawful
5. he actually and subjectively believed a danger existed which required the use of the force applied
6. his beliefs were objectively reasonable

Use of Deadly Force – Practical Framework
Unfortunately, circumstances could necessitate your use of force (perhaps lethal) to thwart an assailant. From myriad legal, moral and practical standpoints, potentially-deadly force should be the very last resort. Below is a model to more clearly ascertain the reasonableness and necessity warranting the use of deadly force. You might think of this as “rules of engagement” for civilians. Though not specified in Illinois law, three concurrent elements would more definitively justify such a grave response ...

Intent: The assailant’s actions and/or words clearly signal his/her intention to commit severe violence against another person. Obvious examples would be: someone deliberately pointing a gun, knife or other deadly weapon at you; threatening speech such as “I’m gonna kill”; an obviously-malicious intruder breaking down your bedroom door.

Capacity: The assailant possesses the power to kill, cripple or incapacitate, indicated by:

• Deadly or incapacitating weapon: his/her brandishing a gun, knife, club, hammer, vehicle, bottle, taser, pepper spray, etc.
• Disparity of force: his/her overwhelming size, strength, fighting skill; multiple attackers. People in greater inherent danger would include the elderly; physically handicapped; small women; children; someone with heart or respiratory problems, osteoporosis, etc.
• Tactical advantage: victim is physically unable to effectively or safely evade, escape or deter; victim has no viable defensive weapon immediately available.

Opportunity: The assailant is capable of imminently inflicting severe injury, given conditions including:

• Proximity – based upon law enforcement research, an attacker within 21 feet can potentially be upon a victim within 1.5 seconds ("Tueller Rule/Drill" - consider it a guideline)
• No barriers or obstacles (e.g., door, wall) are available to prevent or slow the attack
• Terrain – the ground (e.g., snow, ice), landscape (e.g., hills, waterways) or other conditions (e.g. darkness) decidedly favor the aggressor.

Other Justifiable Grounds, and Caveat

Under Illinois law, the use of deadly force is also justified to prevent the commission of a forcible felony. 720 ILCS 5/2-8 defines forcible felony as: “treason, first degree murder, second degree murder, predatory criminal sexual assault of a child, aggravated criminal sexual assault, criminal sexual assault, robbery, burglary, residential burglary, aggravated arson, arson, aggravated kidnapping, kidnapping, aggravated battery resulting in great bodily harm or permanent disability or disfigurement and any other felony which involves the use or threat of physical force or violence against any individual.”

Certain of these forcible felonies (i.e., treason, burglary, residential burglary) may not necessarily pose imminent death or great bodily harm. For example, upon returning home you discover a burglar exiting with property items. You might feel justified in using deadly force to prevent or stop the offense. But absent any reasonable danger of serious bodily harm (or worse) to you, shooting the offender would likely be deemed unlawful. At the very least it would be immoral and unwise. A prosecutor might well file criminal charges against you, claiming your extreme force wasn’t necessary and constituted “willful and wanton misconduct.” You could also face other substantial legal and practical detriments including criminal and civil litigation costs, hassle and time; forfeiture of gun rights; job/career jeopardy; public ridicule; family dissension; emotional problems; etc.

Presumption of Innocence and Affirmative Defense
You should also understand a technical, but critical, legal consequence. Under Illinois law, 720 ILCS 5/3-1, “Every person is presumed innocent until proved guilty. No person shall be convicted of any offense unless his guilt thereof is proved beyond a reasonable doubt.” The general presumption of innocence is embedded in American jurisprudence.

However, in situations involving use of force in defense of self or others, the burden of proof normally shifts to the original prospective victim. He/she would almost certainly invoke the “Affirmative Defense,” 720 ILCS 5/3-2, stipulating that he/she did exert such force but that it was necessitated and justified by the circumstances. Thus, ironically, the originally-innocent party becomes the defendant at trial. He/she must present evidence supporting the defense. However the State bears the obligation to prove the defendant guilty (of all elements of the offense) beyond a reasonable doubt.

No Duty to Retreat
Under Illinois law "a person who has not initially provoked the use of force against himself has no duty to attempt to escape the danger before using force against the aggressor." (per Illinois Supreme Court Pattern Jury Instructions, Criminal 24-25.09X)

Deadly Force Alternatives

Apart from statute and case law, it’s likely the judge and jury will consider options that might have been available to the defendant instead of shooting, e.g., less lethal weapon, retreat, take cover, or await police. Illinois courts recognize that violent encounters often occur quickly. As such, the defendant’s decisions aren’t expected to be perfect, but they are expected to be reasonable. Each juror may wonder what they would have done in the same situation. The defendant ought to have a plausible explanation as to why nonlethal alternatives weren’t or couldn’t be used.

The Best Response
Despite there being no duty to retreat, given the morality issue and likely legal, financial and other consequences, I strongly recommend that potentially deadly force not be used except for instances in which imminent death or great bodily harm to you or other persons is clearly probable. It’s always best to maintain good situational awareness, and try to avoid or escape any attack. Stay safe. Understand the law. Use your brain before you pull the trigger.

Further information and enhanced guidance available to clients. 

Legal Disclaimer/Hold Harmless: Every reasonable effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the treatise's contents. However, the information and recommendations are provided "as is," and without warranty of any kind. The author disavows any responsibility or liability for accuracy, timeliness, completeness, legality or reliability and shall not be responsible for any injury, liability, loss, or damage of whatever nature (direct, indirect, consequential) which may result from its use or non-use.

Originally published March 3, 2015; Rev. 3/20/22

Copyright 2015-2024 Bruce Edenson. All rights reserved.

GUN RANGE SAFETY AND BEST PRACTICES

Most veteran shooters know and exercise safe gun handling. But with the influx of so many novices over the past few years, and their often inattention or indifference to safety fundamentals, there’s been a troubling decline in proper gun range conduct. The following treatise is intended to introduce or emphasize gun range rules, etiquette and best practices. Hopefully everyone will remain injury-free and enjoy themselves. It’s certainly in our best interest - individually and collectively - to constantly foster safety. Bear in mind that we’re also “ambassadors” of the firearms community. Behave responsibly -- don’t give good gun owners a bad name (we have a tough public relations problem already).

Please read and adopt the following practices. Too lazy, don’t have time, or think you know it all? Learning just one of these tips might save your life … a limb or organ … weeks in a hospital … months of agonizing pain … big bucks in medical and legal bills … a jail stint … forfeiture of gun rights ... your reputation and self-respect.

Fundamental Safety Rules

• Always treat firearms as if they're loaded!
• Always keep the gun pointed in a safe direction, i.e., never at any person or animal you're not willing to kill or injure, or at any object you're not willing to destroy or damage!
• Always keep your finger off the trigger until ready to shoot, and don't press the trigger unless and until you intend to shoot!
• Always know your target, including what's beyond and nearby!
• Always keep the gun unloaded until ready to use!
• Always maintain firm control of your gun, including during recoil!
• Never use alcohol or drugs while handling, shooting, carrying or transporting firearms!

Get Your Gun?!
Know how to operate the gun safely (including safety/decocker and field-stripping).

Be sure gun and accessories are safely and correctly functioning.

Know how to properly handle malfunctions including Failure to Load, Failure to Fire, and Failure to Eject.

Use only correct and reliable ammo (make, caliber, pressure rating, grain weight).

Health Matters

Always wear good safety glasses and hearing protection (NRR 27 min. recommended rating).

Wear proper clothing: flat shoes with sturdy soles for solid footing (no flip-flops or high heels); cap with visor to protect head and face from ejected casings; closed-top shirt to protect neck and chest from casings.

Keep “ICE” (In Case of Emergency) contact names & phone numbers and health insurance card in your wallet and/or smartphone.

Stay Arranged at the Range

Before going to the range, check to be sure you have all needed gear (i.e., gun, permit, ammo, magazines, eye & ear protection, targets, speedloader). Inspect guns to be sure they’re lubricated and in good working order. Preload magazines to save time at the range.

Carefully read, understand, remember and obey all range rules! Many ranges post the rules on their websites; review them before your visit.

Some ranges disapprove of persons entering their facilities with loaded and/or uncased guns. Be sure to comply with all such restrictions.

A gun range is an inherently dangerous place. Observe the range before entering to avoid any potentially unsafe activity or condition. Take notice of all exits and possible places of cover. Shooters (and others) should maintain a serious demeanor and responsible conduct at all times. Your undivided attention should be upon safety and proficient shooting. Remain vigilant for hazardous behavior or conditions nearby and throughout the range. Immediately report any concerns to range personnel.

Promptly and fully obey instructions of safety officers or other range personnel.

Keep guns cased until inside your booth; no uncased guns outside your booth. 

Please don't take photos or videotape (allow other shooters their privacy and anonymity). Your attention should be upon proficient shooting, good handling, and safety. A gun range isn't the place for phone chatting, texting, emailing, Internet surfing, or camera posing. 

Most ranges ban beverages, food and tobacco.

It's smart to request an end lane whenever available. It lessens your exposure and vulnerability.

Respect other shooters! Don’t touch their guns, ammo, supplies, etc., without permission.

Keep unnecessary talking to a minimum. Don’t use profanities, insults or other antagonistic speech.

Don’t post targets or wear apparel that may offend other shooters.

If you want to speak with another shooter, wait for a pause in their shooting (e.g., during reloading) and approach them cautiously, non-threateningly and politely.

Check your ego at the door. Pomposity and braggadocio are marks of an amateur. Really good gun-handlers are quiet, humble and secure in their abilities. (Like “Hickok45” on YouTube.)

Unless kids fully understand gun safety, functionality, and range rules, they don’t belong at a range.

Truth in the Booth
Stay behind the bench or firing line at all times.

Always keep the gun pointed downrange, including while benched or reloading.

Load magazines inside - not outside - of your booth.

Familiarize yourself with booth lighting and target control apparatus.

Before setting a loaded gun on the bench, engage the safety or decocker (if equipped).

Safe footing is important. Keep supplies (targets, pistol cases, range bag, etc.) away from feet and occasionally sweep casings from your booth floor to the designated areas/receptacles. Ranges usually prefer the casings be swept forward of the bench/firing line. Sweep only your casings (other shooters may intend to reload theirs).

It’s best to keep your supplies neat and orderly on the shooting bench, and cartridges in their boxes (loose ones can easily roll off the bench).

Keep your range bag and supplies away from other occupied lanes.

It’s advisable to use only one gun at a time. Keep other guns, corresponding magazines and ammo in your range bag until ready to be used.

If something falls off your bench and lands forward of the booth/firing line, do not retrieve it. Ask range personnel for assistance.

Shoot at your targets only – not others’ targets, the floor, walls, ceiling, fixtures, carriers, hardware, etc. Don’t aim your gun, laser or tactical lights anywhere other than your target.

When a cease-fire is called:

1. immediately take finger off and away from trigger
2. keep gun pointed downrange
3. remove the magazine
4. eject any chambered round
5. lock slide back
6. check and recheck to be sure gun is clear
7. set the gun on the shooting bench, muzzle pointed downrange, and ejection port facing up
8. step back from the bench
9. await further instructions from the range officer

No rapid-firing unless expressly permitted by range.

No holster drawing unless expressly permitted by range.

If you and another shooter want to try one another’s guns, first unload and carefully check guns to be sure they’re unloaded. Then either:

1. leave guns benched and pointed downrange in their original lanes while shooters trade places, or
2. unload and case the guns before exchanging them.

In the event of a malfunction you’re unable to safely fix, promptly bench the gun with muzzle pointed downrange and inform range personnel.

If you want to take a brief intermission (restroom, buy ammo or targets, etc.): remove the magazine, eject any chambered cartridge, lock the slide back so action is open, check and recheck to be sure gun is clear, bench the gun with muzzle pointing downrange and ejection port facing up. As a further precaution, ask a trusted nearby shooter to watch your gear.

Once in a great while an ejected casing may hit, burn, singe and even stick to your skin. It can sting. Your instant, reflex reaction will probably be to look at and touch or swipe the affected area. Don’t … remember that you’re holding a gun! Instead, remain calm. Take your finger off and away from the trigger, engage the decocker or safety if equipped, and bench the gun with muzzle pointed down-range. Now you can safely brush away the casing and inspect the affected skin. Very seldom is there any serious burn or scarring. If needed, apply some cold water to the site and ask range personnel for disinfectant, salve, etc.

Don’t linger beyond your allowed shooting time. You wouldn’t want previous shooters to dawdle when you’re waiting for a lane.

Done With Your Gun

When done shooting, empty your gun, check it carefully, and encase it. Be sure to pack up all guns and gear (magazines, ammo, speedloader, etc).

Before finally exiting the booth, clean off the bench and sweep up within and around your lane. Properly dispose of your casings, used targets, empty ammo boxes, etc.

When leaving the range, notify the range manager that you’ve vacated the lane. Be sure to have any ID (driver’s license, gun card, etc.) and deposit returned to you.

Thoroughly rinse hands, wrists, and face with cleansing solution (e.g., “D-Lead”) to remove lead and other heavy metal contamination.

Be alert while entering and exiting a range/gun store, including the parking lot. Someone carrying a range bag might pose a tempting target for criminals looking to steal a gun.

When traveling to and from the range, know and obey all laws pertaining to transporting firearms.

Legal Disclaimer/Hold Harmless: Every reasonable effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the treatise's contents. However, the information and recommendations are provided "as is," and without warranty of any kind. The author disavows any responsibility or liability for accuracy, timeliness, completeness, legality or reliability and shall not be responsible for any injury, liability, loss, or damage of whatever nature (direct, indirect, consequential) which may result from its use or non-use.

Originally published July 26, 2013; rev. 7/5/22

Copyright 2013-2024 Bruce Edenson. All rights reserved.

LARGE CAPACITY MAGAZINE LIMITS - COOK COUNTY AND CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

Updated June 14, 2023 ...

Executive Summary

There's considerable uncertainty and confusion regarding handgun magazine capacity restriction in Cook County, Illinois. Many people mistakenly believe that the preemption clause of the Illinois Firearm Concealed Carry Act (FCCA) is the exclusive or ultimate legal authority, and that it prohibits any limitation upon magazine capacity. In fact, there exists a valid and enforceable Cook County ordinance prohibiting "large capacity magazines" (LCMs) - defined as more than 10 rounds. Except for active law enforcement and peace officers, the ban extends to all persons in Cook County -- not merely its residents. Neither the Cook County ordinance, nor any related court rulings, exempt Illinois Concealed Carry Firearms Licensees. This treatise presents the salient issues.

Illinois Firearm Concealed Carry Act, 430 ILCS 66/ ("FCCA")
A December 2012, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit decision ("Moore v. Madigan") struck down a longstanding prohibition on concealed carry of firearms in Illinois. On July 9, 2014, to necessarily comply with the federal court's ruling, the Illinois legislature enacted the FCCA. It granted eligible, duly-qualified persons the right to carry concealed handguns under certain conditions and with specific exceptions. The following statute excerpts are particularly germane:

Section 5. Definitions. "Handgun" means any device which is designed to expel a projectile of projectiles by the action of an explosion, expansion of gas, or escape of gas this is designed to be held and fired by the use of a single hand.

Section 15. Violations. (f) ... Except as otherwise provided in this subsection, nothing in this subsection prohibits the licensee from being subjected to penalties for violations other than those specified in this Act.

Section 90. Preemption. The regulation, licensing, possession, registration, and transportation of handguns and ammunition for handguns by licensees are exclusive powers and functions of the State. Any ordinance or regulation, or portion thereof, enacted on or before the effective date of this Act that purports to impose regulations or restrictions on licensees or handguns and ammunition for handguns in a manner inconsistent with this Act shall be invalid ... This section is a denial and limitation of home rule powers and functions under subsection (h) of Section 6 of Article VII of the Illinois Constitution.

Illinois Firearm Owners Identification Act, 430 ILCS 65/ ("FOID") 
Is the statutory understructure for the FCCA and Illinois firearm-related criminal laws. Concurrent with the FCCA's adoption the FOID Act was necessarily amended to incorporate the FCCA preemption clause and other provisions, most importantly Sec. 13.1. Preemption:

(a) Except as otherwise provided in the Firearm Concealed Carry Act and subsections (b) and (c) of this Section, the provisions of any ordinance enacted by any municipality which requires registration or imposes greater restrictions or limitations on the acquisition, possession and transfer of firearms than are imposed by this Act, are not invalidated or affected by this Act.

(b) Notwithstanding subsection (a) of this Section, the regulation, licensing, possession, and registration of handguns and ammunition for a handgun, and the transportation of any firearm and ammunition ... are exclusive powers and functions of this State.

(c) Notwithstanding subsection (a) of this Section, the regulation of the possession or ownership of assault weapons are exclusive powers and functions of this State. Any ordinance or regulation, or portion of that ordinance or regulation, that purports to regulate the possession or ownership of assault weapons in a manner that is inconsistent with this Act, shall be invalid unless the ordinance or regulation is enacted on, before, or within 10 days after the effective date of this amendatory Act ... For the purposes of this subsection, "assault weapons" means firearms designated by either make or model or by a test or list of cosmetic features that cumulatively would place the firearm into a definition of "assault weapon" under the ordinance.

(d) For the purposes of this Section, "handgun" has the meaning ascribed to it in Section 5 of the Firearm Concealed Carry Act.

(e) This Section is a denial and limitation of home rule powers and functions under subsection (h) of Section 6 of Article VII of the Illinois Constitution.

State of Illinois Constitution, Article VII. Section 6
Grants certain powers to home rule units (counties and most municipalities) that transcend state law, including: (a) ... a home rule unit may exercise any power and perform any function pertaining to its government and affairs including ... the power to regulate for the protection of the public health, safety, morals and welfare. (c) If a home rule county ordinance conflicts with an ordinance of a municipality, the municipal ordinance shall prevail within its jurisdiction. (h) "The General Assembly may provide specifically by law for the exclusive exercise by the State of any power or function of a home rule unit. (m) Powers and functions of home rule units shall be construed liberally.

Cook County Ordinance, Chapter 54, Article III, Division 4, "Blair Holt Assault Weapons Ban" (Ordinance No. 13-O-32, 7-17-2013) 
Ignoring or contravening the Illinois legislature's clear intent, the FOID/FCCA definition of "handgun," and these Acts' preemption clauses pertaining to handguns and assault weapons, the Cook County Board (within the 10 day window granted under the FCCA) capitalized upon its home rule powers by strengthening the earlier-adopted "Blair Holt" ordinance. The especially relevant elements of the ordinance are:

Sec. 54-210. - Applicability. (a) The provisions included in this division apply to all persons in Cook County including, but not limited to, persons licensed under this article.

Sec. 54-211. - Definitions. 
"Assault weapon" does not include any firearm that has been made permanently inoperable, or satisfies the definition of "antique firearm" ...

Large-capacity magazine means any ammunition feeding device with the capacity to accept more than ten rounds, but shall not be construed to include the following: 1) A feeding device that has been permanently altered so that it cannot accommodate more than ten rounds. 2) A 22-caliber tube ammunition feeding device.

Sec. 54-212. - Assault weapons, and large-capacity magazines; sale prohibited; exceptions. (a) It shall be unlawful for any person to manufacture, sell, offer or display for sale, give, lend, transfer ownership of, acquire, carry or possess any assault weapon or large capacity magazine in Cook County. This subsection shall not apply to ... Transportation of assault weapons or large capacity magazine if such weapons are broken down and in a nonfunctioning state and are not immediately accessible to any person.

Sec. 54-214. - Violation; penalty. (a) Any person found in violation of this division shall be fined not less than $5,000.00 and not more than $10,000.00 and may be sentenced for a term not to exceed more than six months imprisonment. Any subsequent violation of this division shall be punishable by a fine of not less than $10,000.00 and not more than $15,000.00 and may be sentenced for a term not to exceed more than six months imprisonment. (Ord. No. 15-4167, 9-9-2015.)

To circumvent the Concealed Carry and FOID Acts, Cook County employed a disingenuous, convoluted, and incorrect characterization and categorization of "large capacity magazines" (LCMs) as assault weapons. Consider the following facts:

• A magazine is merely the cartridge feeding mechanism for a semiautomatic firearm. A magazine, per se, doesn't and can't cause an explosion or projectile (bullet) expulsion.

• A magazine alone doesn't meet the State's definitions of either firearm or handgun.

• A magazine isn't listed as a weapon under the Illinois Unlawful Use of Weapons statute.

• The county's apparent regard of magazines as "assault weapons" is totally incompatible with the State's ascribed definition: "firearms designated by either make or model or by a test or list of cosmetic features that cumulatively would place the firearm into a definition of assault weapon." A magazine is neither a make, model, test, list nor cosmetic feature.

As such, based upon state law (and common sense), magazines shouldn't be subject to county fiat. The City of Highland Park adopted a similarly flawed ban on LCMs and assault weapons within the FOID's 10-day grace period.

Under the Illinois Constitution, where county and municipal ordinances conflict, municipal law prevails. To the best of my knowledge, no city or village has officially preempted Cook County's LCM ban.

Court Rulings
In Dec. 2013, plaintiffs Dr. Arie S. Friedman and the Illinois State Rifle Association brought an action in the U.S. District Court to enjoin the city of Highland Park, Illinois from enforcing an ordinance nearly identical to Cook County’s AWB ordinance. In Sept. 2014, the U.S. District Court rejected the plaintiffs' argument.

In Aug. 2018, the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Illinois (Wilson v. Cook County, Case No. 17 CV 7002), essentially reaffirming the 2015 federal appeals court ruling in Friedman v. City of Highland Park, upheld Cook County's Assault Weapon Ban. 

In Aug. 2019 the U.S. Court of Appeals, Seventh Circuit, affirmed the Aug. 2018 decision of the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Illinois (Wilson v. Cook County, Case No. 17 CV 7002), upholding Cook County's Assault Weapon Ban. Unless and until the U.S. Appeals Court or U.S. Supreme Court overturns the Seventh Circuit decision, Cook County's prohibition on "large capacity magazines" (greater than 10 rounds) and AR-15 type rifles remains in effect, and violators are subject to prosecution.

Unfortunately, prevailing court rulings support the ban in Highland Park, Cook County, and similar others in Illinois and elsewhere.

No court rulings have exempted Illinois Concealed Carry Licensees from Cook County’s large-capacity magazine ban.

Ordinance Enforcement
Somewhat surprisingly, there's been no noteworthy, standalone LCM or assault weapon prosecution by Cook County. (The State's Attorney certainly has bigger fish to fry.) However, in June, 2018, the Cook County Sheriff's Office acknowledged their responsibility to enforce the ordinance, and intention to more vigorously do so. And Chicago Police officers have been directed to indicate magazine capacity on arrest reports.

It's unlikely you'd be caught with or arrested for a LCM (many police officers are unaware of or ignore the county ordinance). However, if found with a LCM or assault weapon, you might be charged with an ordinance violation and have to defend against prosecution by the Cook County State's Attorney. A first offense conviction could cost as much as six months' incarceration and a $10,000 fine. You'd also likely incur substantial attorney's fees, bail bond costs, along with other serious hardships.

Chicago Restrictions
On July 17, 2013, within the 10-day municipal preemption authority granted under the Illinois Concealed Carry and FOID Acts, Chicago similarly enacted bans on assault weapons. Section 8-20-010 of the Municipal Code enumerates certain firearm makes and models as "assault weapons." Later in the same section, but not included in the assault weapon category, "high capacity magazine" is defined as having an "overall capacity of more than 15 rounds." 

Section 8-20-075 declares the sale, manufacture, transfer or possession of assault weapons to be unlawful. Section 8-20-085 (b) specifically prohibits the sale or possession of "any high capacity magazine or tubular magazine extension for a shotgun carried, possessed, displayed, sold or otherwise transferred in violation of this section is hereby declared to be contraband and shall be seized by and forfeited to the city." The ordinance formatting and language are unclear and quite confusing. High capacity magazine is defined, but it could reasonably be construed that the city's ban seems to be specifically and solely related to shotguns.

Section 8-20-300 (a) provides that any person who violates Sections 8-20-075 or 8-20-085 "shall be fined not less than $1000.00 nor more than $5000.00 and be incarcerated for a term not less than 90 days nor more than 180 days." In addition to ARs, the ordinance bans laser light accessories, threaded barrels, silencers (mufflers), and flash suppressors.

Chicago Police Department directives pertaining to the IL Firearm Concealed Carry Act make no mention of the county's magazine capacity restriction. Thus far, very few related arrests or prosecutions have occurred and it's highly unlikely you'd be caught or charged. But bear in mind that firearm crimes occurring in Chicago are usually handled by the Cook County State's Attorney. Their office (especially in the current anti-gun climate) could begin aggressively prosecuting LCM offenders. And bear in mind that beyond city limits you'd be subject to possible arrest and prosecution for the county's 10-round magazine capacity restriction. Do you really want to take the risk, especially considering the potential consequences (i.e., six months in jail)?

Update January 2023
On January 10, 2023, Illinois enacted the “Protect Illinois Communities Act” (House Bill 5471 with Senate Amendment 3). Among other provisions, the Act bans the purchase, possession, delivery, and sale of any “large capacity ammunition feeding device.” Included in its definitions is “1) a magazine, belt, drum, feed strip, or similar device that has a capacity of, or that can be readily restored or converted to accept, more than 10 rounds of ammunition for long guns and more than 15 rounds of ammunition for handguns; or (2) any combination of parts from which a device described in paragraph (1) can be assembled.” The magazine ban becomes effective April 10, 2023.

 

The Act includes these exemptions: does not apply to a person's possession of a large capacity ammunition feeding device if the person lawfully possessed that large capacity ammunition feeding device before the effective date of this amendatory Act of the 102nd General Assembly, provided that the person shall possess such device only: on  private property owned or immediately controlled by the person; on private property that is not open to the public with the express permission of the person who owns or immediately controls such property; while on the premises of a licensed firearms dealer or gunsmith for the purpose of lawful repair; while engaged in the legal use of the large capacity ammunition feeding device at a properly licensed firing range or sport shooting competition venue; or (5) while traveling to or from these locations, provided that the large capacity ammunition feeding device is stored unloaded and enclosed in a case, firearm carrying box, shipping box, or other container. A person authorized under this Section to possess a large capacity ammunition feeding device may transfer the large capacity ammunition feeding device only to an heir, an individual residing in another state maintaining it in another state, or a dealer licensed as a federal firearms dealer under Section 923 of the federal Gun Control Act of 1968. 

Other exceptions are made for qualified law enforcement officers, private security contractors, and certain other duly authorized personnel. The Act does not exempt Illinois Concealed Carry Licensees or regular FOID cardholders.

A person who knowingly violates a provision of the Act commits a petty offense with a fine of $1000 for each violation. 

It’s important to understand that while this is now a State law, it does not exclude or nullify applicable existing home rule unit restrictions. The ten-round magazine capacity limitations previously imposed by Cook County, Highland Park, Deerfield, and other communities remain in effect. These ordinances have seldom been enforced and given the new state Act, future enforcement is even more unlikely. 

Update June 2023

In January 2023, Herrera v. Raoul was filed in U.S. District Court Northern District of Illinois challenging the constitutionality of, and requesting an injunction against, the Cook County and Chicago bans on magazine capacity and AR-15 style rifles. The District Court denied plaintiff’s requests. The Herrera case has been joined with another similar, Barnett v. Raoul, filed in U.S. 7th Appellate Court and oral arguments are scheduled for June 29, 2023. 

Current Status

The ban prevails throughout Cook County, unless and until any of three conditions occur: the County Board modifies or repeals Blair Holt; 2) a municipal ordinance, declaration or other official provision expressly allows LCMs and AR-15 style firearms within its jurisdiction; 3) The U.S. Appeals Court or U.S. Supreme Court overturns the Blair Holt ordinance (and/or similar laws in other jurisdictions). 

Recommendation

Given the Blair Holt ban and potential penalties, I urge clients, colleagues and others (especially concealed carry licensees) to comply with home rule restrictions unless or until the Seventh Circuit U.S. Appeals Court or U.S. Supreme Court issues a restraining order or decides such Second Amendment infringements to be unconstitutional. Bear in mind there's currently no federal, state or Cook County limitation on the number of magazines you can own or carry.

Miscellaneous Comments

Contrary to the wishful thinking of many concealed carry instructors, licensees, and self-anointed gun “experts,” the preemption clauses of 430 ILCS 65/13.1 and 430 ILCS 66/90 do not exempt them from the Cook County ordinance.

Civics Lesson ... United States courts have ultimate authority in determining the legality of statutes and ordinances. The U.S. Court of Appeals in this judicial circuit has ruled the Cook County ordinance enforceable. Courts in other federal jurisdictions have upheld similar “high capacity” magazine bans. Unless/until the U.S. Supreme Court rules otherwise, the Appeals Court decision here prevails.

Granted, very few people have been arrested and charged with the ordinance violation. However, the Cook County Sheriff’s Office acknowledged its authority and intention to enforce the ordinance. And Chicago Police officers are directed to indicate magazine capacity on arrest reports. Especially given the recent surges in shootings, armed robberies and carjackings, the Cook County State’s Attorney’s Office could begin prosecuting (at least symbolically) ordinance violators. Bear in mind that the potential penalty for violation could be up to 6 months incarceration and a $10,000 fine. Consider also the related bail bond and legal defense costs! Given the prospective penalty, do you really want to risk noncompliance?

If the Cook County AWB wasn’t enforceable, why do you think the Illinois State Rifle Assn., Second Amendment Foundation and other gun rights groups have invested so much in court fights against the ordinance? 

If still in doubt you might discuss this issue with an attorney well-qualified in this particular field. But every criminal defense and civil attorney, prosecutor, judge, legislator, mayor, and law professor with whom I’ve reviewed the issue has shared my interpretation. Incidentally, I would never solely rely upon the legal opinion of any gun store salesperson or other personnel.

Better safe than sorry!

Legal Disclaimer/Hold Harmless: Every reasonable effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the treatise's contents. However, the information and recommendations are provided "as is," and without warranty of any kind. The author disavows any responsibility or liability for accuracy, timeliness, completeness, legality or reliability and shall not be responsible for any injury, liability, loss, or damage of whatever nature (direct, indirect, consequential) which may result from its use or non-use.

Originally published Feb. 14, 2016. Issue update June 14, 2023.

Copyright 2016-2024 Bruce Edenson. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

PROPER BREAK-IN OF SEMIAUTOMATIC HANDGUNS

Guns are deadly weapons! Always think, be alert, and obey all firearms safety rules! 

While the vast majority of new handguns are very reliable, any mechanical object - especially if neglected - is susceptible to malfunction. So it’s smart to have a good understanding of the pistol. Proper break-in and maintenance will optimize its reliability, your performance and enjoyment.

INSPECTION 

When purchasing a pistol, inspect it thoroughly (scratches, nicks, sights properly staked, etc.). Check the controls/components (trigger, hammer, decocker, safety, magazine release, slide lock/release, extractor, magazines) to be sure they’re looking and working properly. Ask the seller to field-strip the gun so you can examine the internal parts. Confirm the make, model, caliber, new or preowned, and serial number; specify all such information on the transaction receipt.

FULLY-EQUIPPED

Be sure the gun comes with all accessories and supplies such as magazines, operator’s manual, extra grips, case, gun lock, etc. Some pistols come with a factory test-fire casing enclosed in an envelope. If so, from a prospective gun resale standpoint, it’s usually best not to break the seal on the envelope.

LEGAL

Verify and obey all applicable laws and regulations (state, federal, county and municipal) relating to firearm transactions, registration, transportation, storage, magazine capacity, etc. Retain gun purchase/sale records (including photos showing serial number) for at least 10 years.

OPERATOR'S MANUAL

Before or when taking possession of the gun, carefully read the operator’s manual and familiarize yourself with safety protocols, major parts and nomenclature, recommended maintenance, etc. Most manufacturers’ websites have digital manuals available for download. A gun schematic diagram and parts list are handy to have. Submit any available warranty to the manufacturer and/or dealer.

INITIAL CLEANING & PREPARATION

New guns often contain manufacturing grime and/or rust-retardant substance (rather than lubricant). Unless guns are adequately cleaned and oiled before initial use, they’re more susceptible to malfunction. Disassembly, cleaning, lubrication and reassembly will also better acquaint you with the gun. Consult the operator’s manual for specific, ongoing maintenance recommendations. Be sure to always perform a thorough function check after reassembly. Inspect the magazines (and clean if preowned). Load and unload magazines at least eight times, and then leave the magazines fully loaded before initial use. Preliminarily working magazine springs will reduce the likelihood of feeding malfunctions.

RACKING THE SLIDE

Rack the slide back and forth, hard and fast, at least 100 times. (Ease - don't slingshot - the slide forward when you're not chambering a round). Racking the slide will:

• exercise the recoil spring and foster more reliable cartridge feeding and casing ejection during initial use.

• smooth out the gun's rails and other slide-to-frame mating surfaces

• strengthen your grip, wrists and forearms

• better familiarize you with the gun's feel

• make racking the slide more natural (intuitive and "automatic")

DRY-FIRING

Dry-firing with snap caps (no live ammo anywhere nearby!) as much as possible is an excellent practice. It will:

• accustom you to the trigger pull (pressure and travel)

• strengthen your trigger finger, grip, wrists and forearms

• acclimate you to the gun's ergonomics, sights and controls, engendering better shooting proficiency (accuracy + speed)

• smooth out and lighten the trigger pull somewhat

The ultimate objective of the racking and dry-fire exercises is to make you "one with the gun." Your motions should become certain, fluid, fast and efficient. You'll be a more competent target shooter. And if the pistol is being used for carry/duty, you'll be better able to respond with maximum speed and effectiveness.

MAGAZINES, SUPPLIES

It’s smart to have at least three magazines for each pistol, and know of reliable sources for parts and accessories. But until certain you’re completely satisfied with the gun, don’t buy unnecessary merchandise for it.

AMMUNITION

During initial break-in period (first 500 rounds approx.), handguns usually function more dependably with quality ammunition, factory-made, brass cased, full metal jacket (FMJ), standard pressure, round nose (RN). It’s ordinarily better to start 9mm guns with a 124 grain bullet weight. Once the gun consistently “digests” 124 grain, confirm the reliability of 115 and 147 grain rounds. In .45 ACP ammo, 230 grain bullets are normally best for initial use. Consult the operator’s manual for specific ammunition recommendations and prohibitions. 

Don’t use hollow-points or high-pressured (+P or +P+) cartridges, even if approved by the gun manufacturer, until you’re sure the gun has been successfully broken in. If feeding problems arise with hollow-points, closely examine the pistol’s feedramp, barrel chamber and throat for gunpowder buildup, nicks, deformity, etc. 

MALFUNCTIONS

If there’s any malfunction you’re unable to safely, readily and successfully fix, promptly stop handling the gun! Hopefully you’ll be able to release the magazine and eject any chambered round; examine the gun to be certain it’s unloaded. If you’re at a gun range, follow proper rules and ask their staff for assistance. Assuming they’re unable, seek the services of a gunsmith, armorer, some other highly-experienced person, or contact the manufacturer.

AFTERWORD

Take good care of the gun and it’s more likely to take good care of you. After all, your life may depend upon it.

Legal Disclaimer/Hold Harmless: Every reasonable effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the treatise's contents. However, the information and recommendations are provided "as is," and without warranty of any kind. The author disavows any responsibility or liability for accuracy, timeliness, completeness, legality or reliability and shall not be responsible for any injury, liability, loss, or damage of whatever nature (direct, indirect, consequential) which may result from its use or non-use.

copyright 2014-2024 Bruce Edenson. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED